Solar energy falling on the plate, typically black-painted metal, is re-emitted as lower-energy IR, which can then be captured in an IR cell. Figure 4a shows the schematic illustration of the SP triple-junction cell design, where the bottom series-connected tandem subcells in a normal structure are electrically connected in parallel with the top inverted subcell. Energy Environ. ACS Nano 4, 37433752 (2010) . For a zoc of 32.4, we find zm equal to 29.0. 2.8 Summary and Conclusions 22. (b,c) Typical JV curves of single-junction reference cells of PCDTBT:PC70BM (b) and OPV12:PC60BM (c) deposited on ITO and AgNWs-coated glass substrates. Sci. Tandem cells are not restricted to high-performance applications; they are also used to make moderate-efficiency photovoltaics out of cheap but low-efficiency materials. Figure 6b shows the measured JV curves of the experimentally constructed hybrid triple-junction solar cell and the corresponding subcells. The V loss t otal of OSCs can be expressed in terms of E 1, E 2, and E 3 in V loss total = (E g PV /q V oc SQ) + (V oc SQ V oc Rad) + (V oc Rad V oc PV) = E 1 + E 2 + E 3, where q, E g PV, V oc SQ, V oc rad, and V oc PV are the elementary charge, photovoltaic band gap, maximum voltage in the Shockley-Queisser (SQ) limit . This leads to a higher interest in lowering the bandgap of perovskite. 32, 510519 (1961) . In addition, as indicated in Supplementary Fig. The first intermediate layers, ZnO and N-PEDOT:PSS, were sequentially bladed at 50C and annealed at 80C for 5min in air and the obtained layer thickness for both layers is 35nm. and V.V.R. Adv. We would like to thank Cambrios Technology Corporation, Dr Mathieu Turbiez from BASF and Dr Norman Lchinger from Nanograde for the supply of AgNWs, DPP and ZnO dispersion, respectively. Am. There are several considerations: Any material, that is not at absolute zero (0 Kelvin), emits electromagnetic radiation through the black-body radiation effect. (c) Equivalent electronic circuit of the series/parallel (SP) triple-junction devices. The purpose of this study is to determine the optimum location for intermediate band in the middle of band gap of an ideal solar cell for maximum performance. TEM was performed on the FEI TITAN3 Themis 60300 double aberration-corrected microscope at the Center for Nanoanalysis and Electron Microscopy (CENEM), the University of Erlangen, equipped with the super-X energy dispersive spectrometer. An efficient solution-processed intermediate layer for facilitating fabrication of organic multi-junction solar cells. 12, 48894894 (2012) . (This is actually debatable if a reflective surface is used on the shady side.) The final thickness of the liftout sample was kept <100nm, to enable high quality conventional transmission electron microscopy (CTEM) imaging at an acceleration voltage of 200kV. The maximum value of f without light concentration (with reflectors for example) is just f/2, or 1.09105, according to the authors. 6, 31503170 (2013) . Dou, L. T. et al. Taking advantage of the fact that parallel-connection does not require current matching, and therefore balancing the current flow in the bottom series-tandem DPPDPP cells is of critical significance. The most widely explored path to higher efficiency solar cells has been multijunction photovoltaic cells, also known as "tandem cells". Taking Kirchhoffs law into consideration, these circumstances lead to the VOC values of our triple-junction cells close to the top subcells which exhibited lower VOC. Currently, the efficiency of our SP triple-junction devices is mainly limited by the mismatch of the VOC of the top subcell with the VOC of the bottom series-connected tandem subcells. These results demonstrated the excellent functionality of the ZnO/N-PEDOT intermediate layer in the series-connected tandem architecture. Second, the VOC of the back cell, which is consisting of a series-connection of deep NIR absorbers, can be custom fabricated by stacking an arbitrary sequence of semiconductors with different bandgaps in series. Dyes, rare-earth phosphors and quantum dots are actively investigated for fluorescent downshifting. . By submitting a comment you agree to abide by our Terms and Community Guidelines. For a "blackbody" at normal temperatures, a very small part of this radiation (the number per unit time and per unit area given by Qc, "c" for "cell") is photons having energy greater than the band gap (wavelength less than about 1.1microns for silicon), and part of these photons (Shockley and Queisser use the factor tc) are generated by recombination of electrons and holes, which decreases the amount of current that could be generated otherwise. However, the stringent current-matching criterion presents primarily a material challenge and permanently requires developing and processing novel semiconductors with desired bandgaps and thicknesses. Using methods similar to the original ShockleyQueisser analysis with these considerations in mind produces similar results; a two-layer cell can reach 42% efficiency, three-layer cells 49%, and a theoretical infinity-layer cell 68% in non-concentrated sunlight.[5]. Mater. Absorption of a photon creates an electron-hole pair, which could potentially contribute to the current. Am. Thus, the novel triple-junction concept demonstrated in this work provides an easy but elegant way to manufacture highly efficient photovoltaic cells, not only for conventional but also for the emerging solar technologies. Based on rational interface engineering, two fully solution-processed intermediate layers are successively developed, allowing effectively coupling the three cells into a SP interconnected triple-junction configuration. Meanwhile, the conduction-band electrons are moving forward towards the electrodes on the front surface. All the materials were used as received without further purification. Moreover, as depicted in Fig. Thank you for visiting nature.com. There may be yet another cell beneath that one, with as many as four layers in total. Chalcogenophene comonomer comparison in small band gap diketopyrrolopyrrole-based conjugated polymers for high-performing field-effect transistors and organic solar cells. Here to demonstrate the general application of our SP triple-junction architecture, we studied two wide bandgap polymers, poly[N-9-hepta-decanyl-2,7-carbazole-alt-5,5-(4,7-di-2-thienyl-2,1,3-benzothiadiazole)] (PCDTBT, Eg, 1.87eV) and OPV12 (Eg, 1.73eV)33, as the top subcells, which give VOC values of 0.9V and 0.8V when mixed with phenyl-C71-butyric acid methyl ester (PC70BM) and PC60BM, respectively. Together with the high FF of 64.5% and VOC of 0.95V, the hybrid triple-junction device shows a PCE value of 11.34%, corresponding to a PCE enhancement by 12.5%. Chem. However, one distinct drawback of the series-connected configuration is the stringent current-matching criterion, which requires careful bandgap engineering in combination with an excellent control of the thicknesses of the respective subcells. & Snaith, H. J. 18, 789794 (2006) . Detailed description of the device fabrication procedure is presented in the Methods section and schematically illustrated in Supplementary Fig. (A) Breakdown of the different loss processes leading to the band gap-dependent Shockley-Queisser limit for single junction solar cells (out, dark blue). Fei Guo and Ning Li: These authors contributed equally to this work. To verify the compatibility of the two wide bandgap donors with the AgNW electrode, single-junction reference cells of PCDTBT:PC70BM and OPV12:PC60BM were first processed on both indium tin oxide (ITO) and AgNWs-coated glass substrates for comparison (Fig. By integrating series- and parallel-interconnections into a triple-junction configuration, we find significantly relaxed material selection and current-matching constraints. If you find something abusive or that does not comply with our terms or guidelines please flag it as inappropriate. Another important contributor to losses is that any energy above and beyond the bandgap energy is lost. Semonin, O. E. et al. As a consequence, the net photocurrent gain contributed by the deep NIR subcells ultimately adds up to the overall photocurrent of the multi-junction photovoltaic cell. In silicon, this transfer of electrons produces a potential barrier of about 0.6 V to 0.7 V.[6], When the material is placed in the sun, photons from the sunlight can be absorbed in the p-type side of the semiconductor, causing electrons in the valence band to be promoted in energy to the conduction band. In physics, the radiative efficiency limit (also known as the detailed balance limit, ShockleyQueisser limit, Shockley Queisser Efficiency Limit or SQ Limit) is the maximum theoretical efficiency of a solar cell using a single p-n junction to collect power from the cell where the only loss mechanism is radiative recombination in the solar cell. Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative. As discussed above, photons with energy below the bandgap are wasted in ordinary single-junction solar cells. 3a). The Shockley-Queisser limit can be exceeded by tandem solar cells, concentrating sunlight onto the cell, and other methods. 1 F.G., N.L. A lamella containing a cross-section of the solar cell was then attached to a TEM half grid for final thinning. Acknowledgement 23. The theory is described by W. Shockley and H. J. Queisser in Journal of Applied Physics 32 (1961). Silvestre, S. & Chouder, A. Shockley and Queisser calculated that the best band gap for sunlight happens to be 1.1 eV, the value for silicon, and gives a u of 44%. J. Appl. (c,d) JV characteristics of the investigated triple-junction cells and the constituent bottom series-tandem subcells and top subcell, (c) DPPDPP/PCDTBT, (d) DPPDPP/OPV12. [27], Also in materials where the (excited) electrons interact strongly with the remaining electrons such as Mott insulators multiple excitons can be generated. Q The calculated bandgap required for the semiconductor to achieve the Shockley-Queisser limit is 1.34 eV , which is higher than the average band gap of perovskite materials. : John Wiley & Sons, 2011. For thick enough materials this can cause significant absorption. C.O.R.Q., C.B. Opt. Colloidal PbS quantum dot solar cells with high fill factor. The record efficiencies of few solar technologies, such as single-crystal silicon, CuInGaSe2, CdTe and GaAs solar cells are constantly shrinking the gap to their fundamental efficiency limits2. carried out the semi-empirical modelling. {\displaystyle I_{0}=2qt_{c}Q_{c}/f_{c}. A solar cell's energy conversion efficiency is the percentage of power converted from sunlight to electrical energy under "standard test conditions" (STC). Shockley and Queisser calculated that the best band gap for sunlight happens to be 1.1 eV, the value for silicon, and gives a u of 44%. If the band gap is too high, most daylight photons cannot be absorbed; if it is too low, then most photons have much more energy than necessary to excite electrons . This means that during the finite time while the electron is moving forward towards the p-n junction, it may meet a slowly moving hole left behind by a previous photoexcitation. (c) Typical JV curves of the single-junction DPP reference cell, tandem DPPDPP reference cell and the semitransparent tandem DPPDPP cell with AgNW top electrode. Among them, the multi-junction concept is one of the most promising candidates that allows to simultaneously address the two dominant loss mechanisms4, namely, sub-bandgap transmission and thermalization losses, which account for >55% of the total energy of the solar radiation9. A cross-sectional transmission electron microscopy (TEM) image of a SP triple-junction solar cell is shown in Fig. CAS prepared the semitransparent perovskite cells. For series-connected tandem solar cells, the essential component is to construct an efficient intermediate layer serving as charge recombination zone for electrons and holes generated from subcells6,18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25. Due to the lack of the back reflective electrode, the semitransparent tandem device shows a relatively low short circuit current (JSC) of 5.16mAcm2. [24][25], Another, more straightforward way to utilise multiple exciton generation is a process called singlet fission (or singlet exciton fission) by which a singlet exciton is converted into two triplet excitons of lower energy. In silicon the conduction band is about 1.1 eV away from the valence band, this corresponds to infrared light with a wavelength of about 1.1microns. The semitransparent perovskite device shows a JSC=16.28mAcm2, VOC=0.94V and FF=65.6%, yielding a PCE of 10.04%. gratefully acknowledge the financial support through the Aufbruch Bayern initiative of the state of Bavaria. Science 317, 222225 (2007) . c Energy Environ. Sci. Beiley, Z. M. et al. Detailed assumptions and calculation procedure are presented in the Supplementary Note 1. If a very efficient system were found, such a material could be painted on the front surface of an otherwise standard cell, boosting its efficiency for little cost. We used an internal quantum efficiency of 100% for our simulation41. ACS Appl. Adv. It should be noted that the absorption of the DPP polymer donor shows a red-shift of only 50nm compared with the perovskite and, therefore, we expect a significant enhancement when deeper NIR sensitizers are used as back series-connected tandem cells. 22, E77E80 (2010) . Detailed assumption and calculation procedure are presented in the Supplementary Note 2. These two problems are solved in Ozdemir-Barone method. Nevertheless, these results suggest the excellent optoelectronic properties of the AgNWs that are compatible with different polymer donors. Design rules for donors in bulk-heterojunction solar cells - Towards 10% energy-conversion efficiency. For organic solar cells, we followed the model proposed by Dennler et al.14,15 to calculate the efficiency potential for the four types of triple-junction architectures as a function of the bandgaps of three absorbers. This first calculation used the 6000K black-body spectrum as an approximation to the solar spectrum. 2b) and a sheet resistance of 10sq1, which is comparable to commonly used ITO electrodes. volume6, Articlenumber:7730 (2015) When there is a load, then V will not be zero and we have a current equal to the rate of generation of pairs due to the sunlight minus the difference between recombination and spontaneous generation: The open-circuit voltage is therefore given (assuming fc does not depend on voltage) by. Zuo, L. J. et al. Through a rational interface layer design, triple-junction devices with all solution-processed intermediate layers achieved PCEs of 5.4% with FFs of up to 68%. Correspondence to Energy Mater. Devos, A. As the ratio Vc/Vs goes to zero, the open-circuit voltage goes to the band-gap voltage, and as it goes to one, the open-circuit voltage goes to zero. BC8 . Energy Environ. First, there can be absorbance below the band gap of the material at finite temperatures. A major loss factor is related to the energy mismatch between the broad wavelength distribution of sunlight and the mono-band gap of . 0 Like electrons, holes move around the material, and will be attracted towards a source of electrons. Solution-processed parallel tandem polymer solar cells using silver nanowires as intermediate electrode. For a zoc of 32.4, this comes to 86.5%. Recently, indoor photovoltaics have gained research attention due to their potential applications in the Internet of Things (IoT) sector and most of the devices in moder By changing the location of the intermediate band, output current and therefore performance can be changed. III45019, respectively.) Soc. The hybrid triple-junction solar cell was assembled by stacking a series-connected opaque DPPDPP as back subcell with a semitransparent perovskite device as front subcell. In the following, we start with the demonstration of the integrated SP triple-junction cells for solution-processed organic solar cells. From a practical point of view, however, the PP interconnection is too complex to process due to the necessity of introducing two transparent intermediate electrodes. (At that value, 22% of the blackbody radiation energy would be below the band gap.) 3). In particular, to exceed the ShockleyQueisser limit, it is necessary for the fluorescent material to convert a single high-energy photon into several lower-energy ones (quantum efficiency > 1). In the extreme limit, for a multi-junction solar cell with an infinite number of layers, the corresponding limit is 68.7% for normal sunlight,[4] or 86.8% using concentrated sunlight[5] (see solar cell efficiency). Phys. Junke Wang, Valerio Zardetto, Ren A. J. Janssen, Nicola Gasparini, Alberto Salleo, Derya Baran, Daniel N. Micha & Ricardo T. Silvares Junior, Xiaozhou Che, Yongxi Li, Stephen R. Forrest, Tomas Leijtens, Kevin A. Bush, Michael D. McGehee, Sebastian Z. Oener, Alessandro Cavalli, Erik C. Garnett, Abdulaziz S. R. Bati, Yu Lin Zhong, Munkhbayar Batmunkh, Nature Communications and Y.H. More realistic limits, which are lower than the ShockleyQueisser limit, can be calculated by taking into account other causes of recombination. Shockley, W. & Queisser, H. J. 0 The record efficiencies of several types of solar. These include recombination at defects and grain boundaries. The author has an hindex of 5, co-authored 8 publication(s) receiving 63 citation(s). [1] The limit is one of the most fundamental to solar energy production with photovoltaic cells, and is considered to be one of the most important contributions in the field.[2]. Ashraf, R. S. et al. 4. A current density of up to 3mAcm2 is calculated for the series-connected DPPDPP tandem cell, as a benefit of the average 53.4% transmittance (650 and 850nm) of the semitransparent perovksite cell (Supplementary Fig. 2b. J. Appl. It is important to note that the analysis of Shockley and Queisser was based on the following assumptions: None of these assumptions is necessarily true, and a number of different approaches have been used to significantly surpass the basic limit. These cells use multiple p-n junctions, each one tuned to a particular frequency of the spectrum. Article We show a material bandgap of 1.82-1.96 eV to allow a limiting 51-57% PCE for a single-junction device under various indoor illuminations. In silicon this reduces the theoretical performance under normal operating conditions by another 10% over and above the thermal losses noted above. 32, 236241 (2007) . and N.G. Mater. 24, 21302134 (2012) . The Shockley Queisser Efficiency Limit It was first calculated by William Shockley and Hans Queisser in 1961. A detailed limit calculation for these cells with infinite bands suggests a maximum efficiency of 77.2%[18] To date, no commercial cell using this technique has been produced. The emergence of perovskite solar cells. Supplementary Figures 1-7, Supplementary Notes 1-2, Supplementary Methods and Supplementary References (PDF 476 kb), This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. For our SP triple-junction organic solar cells, with the exception of bottom ITO-coated glass substrate and top evaporated MoOX/Ag electrode, all the layers were sequentially deposited using a doctor blade in ambient atmosphere. Appl. To install the Shockley-Queisser limit calculator: just download it: Our recent work demonstrated that a thin layer of ZnO nanoparticles can effectively conduct electrons to the AgNW electrode and, more importantly, enable the deposition of the AgNW electrode by doctor blading from water-based solution.16,17 However, both ZnO and AgNW layers are obviously not compact enough to protect the underlying subcells from solvent infiltration during the top subcell deposition. ADS & Peumans, P. Solution-processed metal nanowire mesh transparent electrodes. As the temperature of the cell increases, the outgoing radiation and heat loss through conduction and convection also increase, until an equilibrium is reached. of states. In practice, however, this conversion process tends to be relatively inefficient. Optical transmittance spectra of this intermediate layer and the entire semitransparent tandem DPPDPP solar cell are shown in Fig. Prog. One way to reduce this waste is to use photon upconversion, i.e. Efficient tandem and triple-junction polymer solar cells. Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content: Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article. The middle AgNW layer in this triple-junction device serves as a common cathode to collect electrons created by the subcells. It can be seen that the two triple-junction cells achieved JSC of 9.67mAcm2 (DPPDPP/PCDTBT) and 9.55mAcm2 (DPPDPP/OPV12) which is in good agreement with the optical simulations. Soc. Therefore, the ShockleyQueisser calculation takes radiative recombination into account; but it assumes (optimistically) that there is no other source of recombination. Dennler, G. et al. Normal silicon cells quickly saturate, while GaAs continue to improve at concentrations as high as 1500 times. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms8730. The most energy efficient ones are those with the lowest amount of spectrum loss. Second ed. In actual devices the efficiencies are lower due to other recombination mechanisms and losses in parasitic resistances. 96, 23472351 (2004) . [10] This accounts for about 33% of the incident sunlight, meaning that, for silicon, from spectrum losses alone there is a theoretical conversion efficiency limit of about 48%, ignoring all other factors. Here we report a generic concept to alleviate this limitation. Adv. 1c), parallel/series (PS, Supplementary Fig. 25, 70207026 (2013) . We chose a diketopyrrolopyrrole-based low bandgap polymer pDPP5T-2 (abbreviated as DPP) blended with [6,6]-phenyl-C61-butyric acid methyl ester (PC60BM) as the photoactive layer of the two front subcells16,17, because the main absorption of this heterojunction extends to the near-infrared range with an absorption minimum between 450 and 650nm (Supplementary Fig. 2a. However, there are two problems with this assumption. In brighter light, when it is concentrated by mirrors or lenses for example, this effect is magnified. 4, 1446 (2013) . It is worth mentioning that our second intermediate layer with incorporated AgNWs exhibits an average transmittance of 84.5% (400800nm), which is a distinct advantage over evaporated thin metal films with low transmittance of 3050% as middle electrode in realizing parallel-connection.31,32 Noticeably, the semitransparent tandem DPPDPP cell shows an average transmittance of 35.6% in the range of 450650nm, which ensures for most wide bandgap materials to be applicable as top subcell to effectively harvest the transmitted photons. (a) Equivalent electronic circuit of the series/series (SS) triple-junction organic solar cells. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/, Guo, F., Li, N., Fecher, F. et al. acknowledge financial support from the Ministry of Education, Science and Technological Development of the Republic of Serbia (Grants No. Mater. Organometal halide perovskites have emerged as promising materials that enable fabrication of highly efficient solar cells by solution deposition38,39,40. High-performance semitransparent perovskite solar cells with solution-processed silver nanowires as top electrodes. This process reduces the efficiency of the cell. In addition, 23.14%-efficient all-perovskite tandem solar cells are further obtained by pairing this PSC with a wide-bandgap (1.74 eV) top cell. High fill factors up to 68% without resistive losses are achieved for both organic and hybrid triple-junction devices. The origin of high efficiency in low-temperature solution-processable bilayer organometal halide hybrid solar cells. You, J. In our parallel-connected constituent subcells, the two top subcells showed series resistance of 1cm2 which is almost eight times lower than those of bottom DPPDPP subcells (Table 2). Wide bandgap metal halide perovskites materials are of interest for application as top subcells in multijunction devices. For a converter with a bandgap of 0.92 eV, efficiency is limited to 54% with a single-junction cell, and 85% for concentrated light shining on ideal components with no optical losses and only radiative recombination.[32]. The hybrid platform offers sunlight-to-electricity conversion efficiency exceeding that imposed by the S-Q limit on the corresponding PV cells across a broad range of bandgap energies, under low optical concentration (1-300 suns), operating temperatures in the range 900-1700 K, and in simple flat panel designs. Solution processed polymer tandem solar cell using efficient small and wide bandgap polymer:fullerene blends. The Shockley-Queisser limit gives the maximum possible efficiency of a single-junction solar cell under un-concentrated sunlight, as a function of the semiconductor band gap. {\displaystyle f_{\omega }Q_{s}} D. Appl. The author has an hindex of 4, co-authored 6 publication(s) receiving 67 citation(s). Note that in these two simulations the top PCDTBT:PC70BM layer thickness is fixed to 80nm, corresponding to the optimized thickness in their single-junction state. Guo, F. et al. 6c, the JSC value of the triple-junction device reaches to the JSC value of the opaque single-junction perovskite cell, for perovskite cells with a layer thickness of >300nm. The band gap determines what portion of the solar spectrum a photovoltaic cell absorbs. Modern commercial mono-crystalline solar cells produce about 24% conversion efficiency, the losses due largely to practical concerns like reflection off the front of the cell and light blockage from the thin wires on the cell surface. Antonio Luque and Steven Hegedus. There is an optimal load resistance that will draw the most power from the solar cell at a given illumination level. The ratio of the open-circuit voltage to the band-gap voltage Shockley and Queisser call V. Under open-circuit conditions, we have. In the ShockleyQueisser model, the recombination rate depends on the voltage across the cell but is the same whether or not there is light falling on the cell. 135, 55295532 (2013) . Song, M. et al. Accordingly, the SP interconnection provides a more feasible approach to reach its theoretical efficiency limit. 3.1 Introduction 28. 2 A generic concept to overcome bandgap limitations for designing highly efficient multi-junction photovoltaic cells. In the most common design, a high-bandgap solar cell sits on top, absorbing high-energy, shorter-wavelength light, and transmitting the rest. This rate of recombination plays a negative role in the efficiency. t Nat. F.G. and N.L. 44, 75327539 (2005) . Efficient tandem polymer solar cells fabricated by all-solution processing. The STEM energy dispersive X-ray spectrometry (EDS) elemental maps (Ag, Zn and S) of the cross-section shown in Fig. (q being the charge of an electron). Secondly, reflectance of the material is non-zero, therefore absorbance cannot be 100% above the band gap. These observations provide sufficient evidence that there are no resistive losses for the intermediate AgNW electrode in terms of collecting charge carriers. 4, 36233630 (2013) . J. Appl. The benefit of this series/parallel (SP) multi-junction design is based on the fact thatfirst, the absorber layer of the front semitransparent hero cell can be made arbitrarily thick (as there is no requirement for current matching), so that this subcell can achieve almost the same efficiency as the opaque single-junction reference. Chem. Here, it is assumed that optical absorption starts above the band gap of the material. & Blom, P. W. M. Device operation of organic tandem solar cells. *A breakdown of exactly which factors lower the SQ limit for which bandgaps *A list of some "loopholes" to exceed the SQ limit. Guo, F. et al. Nat Commun 6, 7730 (2015). 3b,c and the key photovoltaic parameters are summarized in Table 1. Trupke, T. & Wurfel, P. Improved spectral robustness of triple tandem solar cells by combined series/parallel interconnection. A blackbody at 6000K puts out 7348W per square centimetre, so a value for u of 44% and a value of 5.731018 photons per joule (corresponding to a band gap of 1.09V, the value used by Shockley and Queisser) gives Qs equal to 1.851022 photons per second per square centimetre. Nano Lett. Funct. 5) and the values calculated by integrating the EQE curve with standard AM1.5 G spectrum show a good agreement with the measured JSC values. They also can be used in concentrated photovoltaic applications (see below), where a relatively small solar cell can serve a large area.
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